8051 Microcontroller Based Essays

8051 Microcontroller Based Essays 8051 Microcontroller Based Essay 8051 Microcontroller Based Essay RF BASED REMOTE CONTROL INTODUCTION-: The Project Long Range Remote Control can be used to remotely control a number of Electrical or Electronic Gadgets connected to it. Unlike Infra Red remote control, this Project employs FM transmission and Reception, and hence it can be used for comparatively longer range. Any gadget can be switched on/off by keying the number allocated to it. The Receiver is made up of the famous 8 bit Microcontroller from Atmel. The Microcontroller is used as the Master in the receiver end which is used to control all the devices. It decodes the Signal from the transmitter and control the relays according to the signal. For transmission we are using frequency modulation at the frequency of 433. 92Mhz. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO 8051 MICROCONTROLLER-: When we have to learn about a new computer we have to familiarize about the machine capability we are using, and we can do it by studying the internal hardware design (devices architecture), and also to know about the size, number and the size of the registers. A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the CPU), non-volatile memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile memory for input and output (RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit. Also called a computer on a chip, billions of microcontroller units (MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of products from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or more microcontrollers. The following picture describes a general block diagram of microcontroller. AT89S52: The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller, which provides a highly flexible and ost-effective solution to many, embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with st atic logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt The hardware is driven by a set of program instructions, or software. Once familiar with hardware and software, the user can then apply the microcontroller to the problems easily. The pin diagram of the 8051 shows all of the input/output pins unique to microcontrollers: The following are some of the capabilities of 8051 microcontroller. ? Internal ROM and RAM ? I/O ports with programmable pins ? Timers and counters ? Serial data communication The 8051 architecture consists of these specific features: ?16 bit PC data pointer (DPTR) ?8 bit program status word (PSW) ?8 bit stack pointer (SP) ?Internal ROM 4k ?Internal RAM of 128 bytes. ?4 register banks, each containing 8 registers ?80 bits of general purpose data memory ?32 input/output pins arranged as four 8 bit ports: P0-P3 ? Two 16 bit timer/counters: T0-T1Two external and three internal interrupt sources Oscillator and clock circuits THEORY-: Radio Frequency remote control) A handheld, wireless device used to operate audio, video and other electronic equipment using radio frequency (RF) transmission. Unlike the more common infrared (IR) remotes, RF remotes do not require line of sight and do not have to be aimed at the equipment. In fact, RF remotes can be operated. RF Receivers (Base Stations) Are Required Since most equipment is IR based and comes with an IR sensor located on the front panel, the RF must wind up as IR. This is accomplished with an RF receiver, which is a base station and antenna, that accepts RF signals and converts them to IR. For use inside equipment cabinets, the receiver typically has an IR blaster that showers IR signals to all components by reflecting off the closed cabinet door. The RF receiver also has sockets for several IR emitters (IR flashers) that are wired to, and pasted directly over, the IR sensors in the equipment for precise aiming. See IR remote control and RF. References-: The 8051 microcontroller and Embedded systems using assembly and C Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillespie Mazidi 1. Keil Software, dScope Debugger, keil. com/ 2. National Instruments Multisim 10. 0 www. ni. com/multisim 3. www. 8051projects. info 4. www. 8051projects. net 5. www. dnatechindia. com 6. AT89c51 datasheet available at www. alldatasheets. com

The eNotes Blog Michelle Obamas Becoming and 8 Other Memoirs You Need to Read RightNow

Michelle Obamas Becoming and 8 Other Memoirs You Need to Read RightNow As much as we love to indulge in engaging works of fiction, theres something about a true story thats unmatched- particularly memoirs. A memoir invites readers into an intimate literary experience that can possess a strong sense of voice and perspective. Above all, learning about other real-life experiences can lead us to reflect on our own. From stories of overcoming adversity to journeys of self-discovery, these are the memoirs you need to read right now. Image via Barnes Noble 1. Becoming  by Michelle Obama This year has been dominated by political books, and Michelle Obama’s Becoming has soared beyond the rest. The former first lady’s highly anticipated memoir has been flying off shelves since its release, selling more than 725,000 copies its first day. As one of the most iconic women of our generation, Michelle is no stranger to the spotlight; yet, shes inviting readers into her private world. From growing up on the South Side of Chicago to making history on Pennsylvania Avenue, Becoming is a warm, witty reflection of the triumphs and tribulations that have shaped Michelle Obama into the woman she is today. Image via Amazon 2. Boy Erased: A Memoir of Identity, Faith, and Family  by Garrard Conley When nineteen-year-old Garrard came out to his parents, he was forced to make a life-changing decision: agree to attend conversion therapy or risk losing the ones he loves. One of The New York Times best sellers and major motion picture, Boy Erased is a young mans search for self in the midst of deeply rooted bigotry. Above all, this memoir is a profound reminder of the uphill battle of acceptance, tolerance, and understanding that individuals continue to endure through their journeys of self-discovery. Image via Harper Collins 3. Hunger: A Memoir of (My) Body  by Roxane Gay The Bad Feminist is back with another work of staggering honesty. Hunger is a powerful, unapologetic account of Roxane Gays struggles with identity, rooted in the inescapable vessel that is her body. Gay shares her most intimate inner dialogues with her readers, addressing the demons who have nestled in her psyche since childhood. While this may be a troubling read for some, Gays insight into the traumas that mold human experience is both courageous and inspiring. Image via Target 4. H is for Hawk  by Helen Macdonald To cope with her fathers sudden death, Helen Macdonald adopts one of the worlds most vicious predators, a goshawk. She soon discovers the bonds between nature and humanity, as well as the shared, universal experiences of sorrow and loss. A breathtaking blend of storytelling and nature writing, Helen Macdonalds memoir is unique, ironic, and something you wont want to put down. Image via Penguin Random House 5. My Beloved World  by Sonia Sotomayor The first Hispanic and third woman appointed to the United States Supreme Court, Sonia Sotomayor is a symbol of the American dream. Her memoir is a testament to perseverance and a tribute to her roots. Written with a beautiful emotional awareness, Sotomayor takes readers on a journey of her humble beginnings in Puerto Rico through the countless obstacles she has overcome to obtain a seat in the highest court of the land. This memoir is an empowering example of a woman who transcended the limits of tolerance with a work ethic that helped her achieve her ultimate dreams. Image via Milwaukee Journal Sentinel 6. Lab Girl  by Hope Jahren Geobiologist Hope Jehran found sanctuary in science at an early age. As a workaholic, Jehran is determined to make something of her life’s practice. Her memoir is crafted into three parts, each reflecting major milestones in her life, followed by a unique personification of plants that relate to each experience. Jehran discusses being a woman in science, her struggles with mental health, and the passion for plants that fuels her passion for life. Lab Girl highlights the natural courses of life, both in people and plants, and the lessons we learn through living. Image via Dighton Public Library 7. Funny in Farsi: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America  by Firoozeh Dumas When seven-year-old Firoozeh and her family move from Abadan, Iran, to the suburbs of Los Angeles, they must figure out how to settle into a new country with an unfamiliar culture. Firoozeh takes readers along a humorous, yet often heartbreaking, journey through the highs and lows of adjusting to American life. From learning English through American game shows to experiencing the embedded prejudices in society, Firoozeh and her family learn to appreciate the United States without losing sight of their roots. Image via Bloomsbury Publishing 8. Kitchen Confidential: Adventures in the Culinary Underbelly  by Anthony Bourdain This past June, the world lost beloved chef, writer, and TV host Anthony Bourdain. While Kitchen Confidential is not Bourdains most recent work, readers are revisiting the memoir almost two decades after its original publication. Personal anecdotes blended with industry commentary, Bourdains book illustrates his initiation into the world of food and the passion he turned into a lifelong career. What makes this memoir worth a read is the reminder of Anthony Bourdains legacy that moved beyond the world of culinary arts to a diverse, global audience. Image via Amazon 9. The Distance Between Us  by Reyna Grande Award-winning novelist and memoirist, Reyna Grande shares her troubling yet triumphant story of a Mexican immigrant experience. At nine years old, Grande enters the US as an undocumented immigrant to reunite with her father, who left Mexico in pursuit of the American dream. Grande soon realizes that the United States is not the â€Å"promised land† she anticipated and her father isn’t the man she remembers. The Distance Between Us is a coming of age work that highlights the complexities of the sacrifices necessary to create a new life. Looking for a title that didnt make our list? Let us know in a comment below!

Fieldwork papaer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Fieldwork papaer - Assignment Example This topic was chosen because, personally speaking, a discovery of something interesting, especially when unexpected, is always welcome and appreciated. Also, a review of the notes done during the fieldwork shows several insights on the interplay of the social, economic, and human capitals that made the Solano Canyon Community Garden a possibility. Community gardens create a sense of camaraderie among the people in a community while providing a new method of growing food. It is possible that the sustainability of the positive results of the community garden can be ensured if its causes are maintained and looked after. The fieldwork approach for this research can be described as under contemporary anthropology, where the research method involves an extensive fieldwork featuring participant observation coupled with interpersonal interviews. This approach can also be called ethnography. Fieldwork is a good method for this research because it: a) helps get the â€Å"feel† of a place, b) helps to get to understand a society from the inside, and; c) provides the observational, factual basis for generalizations (OToole, Paddy, and Prisca 619). Observation was the initial method used to explore the possible topics and issues. Also, field notes were used to so that even the smallest details were jotted down. For interviews, casual conversations were the starting-point. Interview notes were used and interviewees were addressed on a first-name basis, with the permission of the interviewee. The whole set-up was very jovial, warm, and casual that no one seemed to want to be addressed too formally. A few asked â€Å"not to be quoted† on certain issues that they personally deem as sensitive, and to exercise balance on the overall research, it is decided that everyone would just be under a pseudonym, except for the Master Gardener Al Renner. It is

Management of Resources and Operations. Coca-Cola Company Term Paper

Management of Resources and Operations. Coca-Cola Company - Term Paper Example The company has been successful over the past years in terms of growth and market share globally. It uses franchising business model whereby it only manufactures the concentrate and then sells it to its franchised outlets. Its management is crucial to this success since it lays down the platform on how processes are done. To create an order in its operations, the global headquarters makes all major decisions like promotional advertisements and branding while every regional level implements them hence creation uniformity in the market. This research paper will seek to establish the management of resources and operations and the resultant success in Coca-Cola Company. Functions of Management Though management’s functions might vary, it carries out four key functions. In planning function, it identifies tasks to be done and offer procedure on how to perform them. It also declares and specifies the deadlines for the responsibilities. The main intention of planning is to work towar ds aspiration achievement both short term or long-term. Management controls by comparing performance against previous or set standards (Aswathappa & Dash. 2007:23). This enables the organization to set boundaries on business activities. Measuring of performance enables the organization to plan the next course of action as a corrective measure. Its organizing function encompasses dividing roles and tasks among employees as a mechanism of implementing of plans. Influencing may also mean motivating of employees. Therefore, through influencing, the management provides guiding principle on activities that are pilot to goal achievement. Influencing increases productivity in an organization since people are motivated (Griffin, 2011:12). Therefore, operations management ensures that production of goods is within the undeviating time possible, with the least amount of resources and customer needs addressed efficiently and effectively. Management Strategies in Coca-Cola Company The companyâ⠂¬â„¢ success and profitability is a fruit of its management strategies that keep its operations on track to goal achievement (Bodden, 2008:8). Its management involves itself in environmental scanning whereby it collects data, analyzes it, and provide information for strategy planning. This scanning helps it identify the present internal and external opportunities as well as threats. Therefore, it is essential to carry out the environmental analysis frequently for a continuous improvement in the organization. Strategy formulation is another milestone for success to Coca-Cola Company (Marr, 2010:286). It has a definite course of action on how to achieve the organizational goals. In other words, this may refer to the road map that the company should use in order to achieve its goals. The senior level management is bestowed with the responsibility for the formulation of long-term strategies, and shaping them. As the same time, the front line managers make decisions on tactical strategi es; they make short-term decisions. Another key function within the company is strategy implementation. Once the company establishes its strategy, putting it into operation is of significance (Jennings, 2011:27). The implementation process involves designing its structure, distributing resources, formulating a decision making channel, as well as managing

The Audit of the Multinational Listed Company ABC Ltd Essay - 1

The Audit of the Multinational Listed Company ABC Ltd - Essay Example Abnormal items representing the loss on sale of investments $ 17,050. Details of investments and sale are required to check against the market value that prevailed at the time of sale and reason why they had to be sold at loss should be ascertained. There has been an increase of $ 77,318 in property, plant, and equipment and $ 76,737 in brand names and a decrease of $ 13,595 in investments. The increase in the value of property, plant, and equipment needs to be physically verified with reference to the relative purchase invoices and a comparison with market rates conducted. The increase in brand names also needs to be physically checked with new brand names acquired or it should be ascertained whether increase has been due to the revaluation of the brand names. Policy regarding treatment of brand names in the balance sheet has been separately dealt with. As regards decrease in investments, it should be investigated, the reason for there being no correlation with the loss reported and the decrease. Whether the values reported in the balance sheet represent a cost of acquisition or market value has also to be ascertained. The increase in creditors and borrowings represents an amount of $ 186,041. This is to be ensured against any possible inclusion of proforma purchase invoices without corresponding entry in the value of inventories. Policy regarding payment based on proforma invoices without receiving stocks has also been separately dealt with. The net increase of $ 44,240 in total non-current liabilities should be analyzed. While there is the increase in creditors and borrowings, provisions have reduced. Whether there is under a provision of liabilities to avoid the possible reduction in profits or liabilities have been terminated requiring no further provisions, need to be ascertained.

The Legitimacy Theory And CSR Disclosure Accounting Essay

The Legitimacy Theory And CSR Disclosure Accounting Essay The issue of corporate social responsibility has got a lot of attention in the business and political world since the early 1990s and the major reason behind this was corporate scandals. Organizations had started to realize that the basis on which they were achieving economic growth was unsustainable and hence there was a need to develop a process which would intend at balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability and societal expectations. In fact the origin of corporate social responsibility can be found in the 1950s and 60s whereby successful companies were trying to link corporate social responsibility to the power that business holds in society. The theoretical progresses were subdivided in ethical and accountability and the stakeholder approach to strategic management. CSR can be distinguished from the three terms which are included in its designation phrase and these words are; Corporate, social and responsibility. Hence CSR can be explained as being the responsibilities that a company undertakes for the society within which it carry out its operations. To be specific, CSR require a business to identify its stakeholders and include their needs and values in the tactical day to day decision making process of the company. Consequently the society within which a business function and which identify the number of stakeholder to which the organization owe a responsibility can be broad depending on the type industry within which it operate. The different stakeholders to which a company is accountable can be illustrated using the figure below: http://www.industryplayer.com/images/corporate_social_responsibility.jpg Figure 1: stakeholder of a business According to figure 1, a business must respond to two aspects which evolve during their operating process and these are: The quality of management which is represented by the inner cycle and it is both in terms of people and processes. The nature of and the extent to which their processes impact on the society in various areas. The stakeholders who are outside take more interest in the activities undertaken by the company, i.e. most of them look at what has the company actually done. Their objective is to fid out if the company has done good or bad in terms of its product and services, the treatment it gives it its labour force and in terms of the impact of its activities on the environment and local communities. There seems to be an infinite number of definitions of CSR, ranging from the simplistic to the complex, and a range of associated terms and ideas including `corporate sustainability, corporate citizenship, corporate social investment, the triple bottom line, socially responsible investment, business sustainability and corporate governance. It has been suggested that `some researchers distort the definition of corporate social responsibility or performance so much that the concept becomes morally unintelligent, conceptually meaningless, and utterly unrecognizable'(Orlitzky 2005); or CSR may be regarded as `the universal remedy which can solve several social evil such as the global poverty gap, social exclusion and environmental degradation (Van Marrewijk 2003). Some definitions of CSR which are commonly accepted are: The notion of companies looking beyond profits to their role in society is generally termed corporate social responsibility (CSR)..It refers to a company linking itself with ethical values, transparency, employee relations, compliance with legal requirements and overall respect for the communities in which they operate. It goes beyond the occasional community service action, however, as CSR is a corporate philosophy that drives strategic decision-making, partner selection, hiring practices and, ultimately, brand development.  [1]   South China Morning Post, 2002 The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time.  [2]   Archie B. Carroll, 1979 CSR is about businesses and other organizations going beyond the legal obligations to manage the impact they have on the environment and society. In particular, this could include how organizations interact with their employees, suppliers, customers and the communities in which they operate, as well as the extent they attempt to protect the environment.  [3]   The Institute of Directors, UK, 2002 Why is CSR relevant today? CSR has become famous in the language and strategy of business and by the growth of dedicated CSR organizations globally. Governments and international governmental organizations are increasingly encouraging CSR. CSR is rapidly becoming a major part of all business management courses and a key global issue because of three trends which are easily identifiable: 1. Changing expectations of the society Following recent corporate scandals which have lead to the decrease in the trust that the public has on regulatory bodies and companies to control corporate excess, customers and the general public tend to expect more from the company with which they trade. 2. Rising affluence This is true not only in developed countries but also in developing countries. Rich customers have enough money to select the product they want to buy and as the society need work and inward investment will not impose severe rules which will penalize companies which invest their money elsewhere. In other words if a company is investing its money in CSR activities and for this reasons its product become more costly, the affluent consumers will not punish the organization and they will buy its product. 3. Globalization Nowadays the least mistake made by companies is instantly make known to the public via the media. On top of that, increasing internet communication between people having the same opinion and the consumers, authorize them to spread their message and giving them the opportunity to take collective action that is they can boycott a product. In other words if a company is taking actions which is against the environment and the society, the public may takes action against the business. According to these three trends, more importance is given to brand which lead to the success of companies and thus there is a shift in the relationship between companies and customers whereby the latter are better informed and feel more powerful to put their belief into action. From the standpoint of businesses, the parameters within which they operate are more and more affected by bottom-up, working class campaigns, NGOs and consumer activists leading to a change in the relationship between consumers and the company. CSR is becoming more and more important in our fast developing world as brands are built on perceptions and concepts which appear to have higher values. Theoretical Frameworks and CSR Disclosure The Legitimacy Theory While there is no generally accepted theory for explaining CSR disclosure practices, recent research in the CSR literature has primarily relied on legitimacy theory (Deegan 2002, p. 285). Indeed, it is probable that legitimacy theory is the most widely used theory to explain environmental and social disclosures (Campbell, Craven and Shrives, 2003, p. 559) while, according to Gray, Kouhy and Lavers (1995), legitimacy theory has an advantage over other theories in that it provides disclosing strategies that organisations may adopt to legitimate their existence that may be empirically tested. The Legitimacy theory, according to Ness Mirza (1991), argues that the voluntary disclosure of social responsibility information can be perceived as a strategy to reduce political costs. Social theory reporting has been explained from a Legitimacy Theory perspective LT has been considered as widely accepted theory to shed light on social reporting practices of a firm. It states that firms will take actions to ensure that their operations are obvious to be legitimate from the point of view of the society within which the organization is assumed to operate. That is, they will attempt to establish resemblance between social values associated with or indirect by their activities and the norms of acceptable behavior in the larger social system of which they are part. Legitimacy Theory specifies a social contract between the organisation and society. Legitimacy is defined by Lindblom (1992) as: a condition or status which exists when an entitys value system is congruent with the value system of the larger social system of which the social system of which the entity is a part. When a disparity, actual or potential, exists between the two value systems, there is a threat to the entitys legitimacy. Hence, Legitimacy Theory implies that managers will not undertake any actions that will be considered as illegitimate in society. By engaging in social reporting, they tend to enhance the relevance of the financial statement as well as that of earnings by making people to believe in the reliability of what is being reported in the financial statements and by providing additional information on issues other than earnings and financial information. This may however redirect the interest of users away from the earnings figure. Institutional theorists (e.g Fogarty, 1992) observe that organizations need to respond to social expectations. Public expectations have undergone significant changes in the last decades such that profit maximization is not the sole measure of performance expected from the economic entity. There are a lot of implicit and explicit expectations from society vis-a-vis the operations of the organization. According to Heard Bolce (1981), with sensitive societal expectations, it is anticipated that successful businesses will react to attend to human, environmental and other social consequences of their activities. In spite of being unregulated, social and green reporting has increased in annual reports of organizations. Empirical tests of the Legitimacy Theory by Hogner (1982) revealed that the extent of social disclosures in the annual reports varied in response to societys expectations of corporate behavior. Deegan Rankin (1996) found that prosecuted firms for environmental charges increased their green reporting while Gray, Kouhy Lavers (1995) found that firms use corporate social reporting to fill the legitimacy gap. It is assumed that the economic entity will have the legitimate right to continue to operate in society to the extent that it fulfils the societal expectations. Otherwise, there will be a breach in the social contract between the entity and the society, and sanctions, such as fines, legal actions, and a fall in the demand of its product, will be taken. Society may revoke the organizations licence to operate or contract to continue its operations, for instance. Under Legitimacy Theory, not only the rights of investors are considered, but a much bigger picture of the public at large is considered. Furthermore, it is also expected that the organisation for its survival will have to adapt to the changing expectations of society. Downling Pfeffer (1975) refer to communication strategies, that the entity can use in order to legitimate or maintain the legitimacy of its activities. Reference is made to the public disclosure of information, in annual reports, for instance, to let the public know and educate them about the actions and performance of the firm and hence the manipulation of societys expectations, is made. In the same vein, they argue that one of the functions of annual reports would be to legitimate the existence of the organisation. Therefore, Legitimacy Theory proposes a relationship between corporate disclosures and societal expectations, as evidenced by a lot of research (Deegan Ratkin (1996); Gray,Kouhy Lavers). Stakeholder Theory Stakeholder theory (Gray, Kouhy Lavers 1995b, p. 53) state that the corporations continued existence requires the support of the stakeholders and their consent are required and hence the activities of the business are adjusted according to that approval. The more powerful the stakeholders, the more the company must adapt. Social disclosure is thus seen as part of the dialogue between the company and its stakeholders. Within the Stakeholders point of view, the success of a business depends on its capacity to balance the differing demands of its various stakeholders. The definition of stakeholder has altered considerably over the past four decades. At one end of the range the shareholder was believe the sole or principal stakeholder. This definition was based on arguments proposed by the Noble prize winner, Mr. Milton Friedmans view. According to him, the sole moral responsibility of a business is to maximize profits. Freeman (1983), however, expands the definition of stakeholder to include a broader selection of constituents including opposing groups such as interest groups and regulators. He defines stakeholders as any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organisations objectives. Stakeholder Theory states that managers ought to serve the interests of all those who have a stake in the firm. Stakeholders include shareholders, employees, suppliers, customers and the communities in which the firm operates a collection which Freeman terms the Big Five. Therefore, all groups in an area in which the firm operates and all individuals in such area are stakeholders. Given that CSR reporting is attempted to underline how the company relates to society in the course of its different social activities, the stakeholder theory can be seen as a guideline which will direct firms to have proper way of disclosing CSR as they will know what type of actions stakeholders are expecting from them. Corporate Governance Corporate governance can be defined as a set of rules and regulations according to which the behavior of a company is affected. Another aspect of it is that it is also concerned with the relationships which exists among different stakeholders of the company and with the goals which the company has in view. Shareholders, board of directors, employees, customers, creditors, suppliers, and the community at large are the main stakeholders of a business. Gabrielle ODonovan defines corporate governance as an internal system encompassing policies, processes and people, which serves the needs of shareholders and other stakeholders, by directing and controlling management activities with good business know-how, objectivity, accountability and integrity. Sound corporate governance is reliant on external marketplace commitment and legislation, plus a healthy board culture which safeguards policies and processes. An essential part of corporate governance is to create a system that try to decrease or eradicate the principal agent problem which will ensure accountability of certain individuals in the business. Corporate governance has several areas of discussion such as the effect of a system of corporate governance in economic efficiency whereby more emphasis has to be put on shareholders welfare. Principles of corporate Governance Honesty, trust and integrity, openness, performance orientation, responsibility and accountability, mutual respect, and commitment to the organization forms an essential part of corporate governance. The most important part in corporate governance is to see whether the management has been able to develop a model which is in line with the standards of the corporate participants. In addition to this they must evaluate this model from time to time to ensure that it is effective. Hence the management should do their wok honestly and ethically, particularly concerning conflicts of interest and disclosure in financial reports. Commonly accepted principles of corporate governance include: Rights and equitable treatment of shareholders: company should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to implement those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by effectively communicating information that is understandable and accessible and encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings. Interests of other stakeholders: Organizations should be aware of the legal and other obligations that all legitimate stakeholders have. Role and responsibilities of the board: The board needs a variety of skills and understanding to be able to deal with various business issues and have the aptitude to review and challenge management performance. It needs to be of adequate size and have an apt level of commitment to fulfill its responsibilities and duties. There are issues about the appropriate mix of executive and non-executive directors. Integrity and ethical behavior: Ethical and responsible decision making is not only important for public relations, but it is also a crucial part in risk management and avoiding lawsuits. businesses should develop a code of conduct for their directors and executives that promotes ethical and responsible decision making. It is important to understand, though, that reliance by a company on the integrity and ethics of individuals is bound to eventual failure. Because of this, many organizations establish Compliance and Ethics Programs to minimize the risk that the firm steps outside of ethical and legal boundaries. Disclosure and transparency: Organizations should simplify and make publicly known the roles and responsibilities of board and management to provide shareholders with a level of accountability. They should also implement measures to independently validate and safeguard the integrity of the companys financial reporting. Disclosure of material matters concerning the organization should be timely and balanced to ensure that all investors have access to clear, factual information. Nevertheless corporate governance, despite some weak attempts from various quarters, remains a vague and often misunderstood expression. For quite some time it was confined only to corporate management. It is something much broader, for it must include a fair, efficient and transparent administration and strive to meet certain well defined, written objectives. Corporate governance must go well beyond law. The quantity, quality and frequency of financial and managerial disclosure, the degree and extent to which the board of Director (BOD) exercise their trustee responsibilities (largely an ethical commitment), and the commitment to run a transparent organization- these should be constantly evolving due to interplay of many factors and the roles played by the more progressive/responsible elements within the corporate sector. CG and CSR Disclosure Following recent accounting and ethical scandals in firms such as Enron, WorldCom and Parmalat, corporate governance is being regarded as an important issue in the business world due to the fact that rules and regulations have become stricter with regard to societal expectations. In this respect the concept of corporate governance has start to cover some part of CSR. Previous researches has tended to study CG and CSR issues separately and not as combined manifestation in the fast developing business world where CG issues may also have impact on CSR disclosure and firms performance. Examples of studies that have directly or indirectly link CSR and CG are those that talk about the influence of CG reforms on business ethics most often in a particular region( mainly Rossouw 2005; Kimber and Lipton,2005; Ryan 2005); the role of socially responsible investors and shareholder activism (Aguilera et al., 2006; McLaren, 2004; Monks et al., 2004; Guay et al., 2004; Sjà ¶strà ¶m, 2008) and of employee relations (Deakin and Whittaker, 2007; Jones et al., 2007); and, perhaps most remotely, those that critically examine the stakeholder approach, frequently referring to an agency perspective (Hill and Jones, 1992; Jensen, 2001; Sternberg, 1997; cf. Kolk and Pinkse, 2006). There is several corporate governance practice which helps to find out whether corporate social responsibility should be disclosed or not, for example the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) comes across several indicators such as independence and expertise of directors which help to identify economic, environmental and social risks and opportunities and find out whether the financial and non financial goal have been achieved and hence based on this firms will decide whether CSR should be disclosed or not. Corporate governance and corporate social responsibility is therefore expected to be more integrated in the field of business disclosure practices. Nowadays companies are required to disclose other types of information, like what the business has done for the welfare of the society, and not only financial information. For this reason the number of firms which publish voluntary reports has increased. According to the triple bottom line, a business reports strategy and operational performance within three primary dimensions and these are financial, stakeholder and environmental performance. Thus these reports shows that there is proper planning in the business as the latter selects the most important issues to be included in the triple bottom line plan and report. This report is usually included in the annual report which shows that the corporate governance structure does indeed have an impact on CSR disclosure. According to Tricker (1984), CSR disclosure can be viewed as a strategy which leads to towards closing a perceived legitimacy gap between management and shareholders, especially foreign shareholders. Non executive directors are seem as a mechanism which not only acts in the best interest of the owner but also in the interest of other stakeholders and they advise about the presentation of the the companies activities. Zahra and Stanton(1988) said that members in the corporate governance team are more likely to concers about honour and obligations and they would make disclosures which would improve their social prestige and honour. Board Size and CSR Disclosure One important element of corporate governance mechanism is the board of directors as they see whether the business is properly managed by their agents. Previous studies have proposed that bigger board size can increase communication and coordination problem and decrease the ability of the board to control management and on the other hand small board can decrease agency conflicts between managers and shareholders (Lipton and Lorsh, 1992; Eisenberg et al., 1998; Raheja, 2003). Jensen (1993) found that large board size result in less effective coordination, communication and decision making is more likely to be controlled by the CEO. Thus it can be forecasted that ineffective coordination in communication and decision making will result in low quality financial disclosure due to the fact that managers have not been able to perform their roles efficiently. Independent Non Executive Directors and CSR disclosure Previous empirical governance literature that board independence will foster board effectiveness. The difference between socially responsible firms and non socially responsible firms board structures was studied by Webb (2004) and she found that socially responsible firms had more independent directors than non socially responsible firms. Independent directors has the objective to safeguard shareholders interest and they also play an important role in enhancing the corporate image. They are seen as an important tool to keep an eye on management behavior (Rosenstein and Wyatt, 1990) and hence this results in more voluntary disclosure. Forker (1992) found out that the higher number of independent directors supervise the quality of financial disclosure. CEO Duality and CSR disclosure When a person hold the position of CEO and boar chairman, CEO duality occurs (Rechner and Dalton, 1989). This combination reflects leadership and corporate governance issues. However vesting these two powers in only one person gives that latter a strong base which can erode the boards ability to exercise effective control (Tsui and Gul, 2000). Therefore, companies with the CEO duality offer greater power to a person, which enable him to make decisions that do not maximize the shareholders wealth and will help improved monitoring quality and reduce benefits from withholding information that may consequently result in enhancing quality of reporting. Audit Committee and CSR disclosure Prior researches have proven that audit committee plays an effective role in enhancing the corporate governance standards. Wright (1996) found that audit committee composition is strongly related to financial reporting. McMullen and Raghunandan (1996) provide support for the association between the presence of an audit and more reliable financial reporting. The existence of an audit committee was significantly and positively related to the extent of voluntary disclosure (Ho and Wong, 2001; Bliss and Balachandran, 2003). Audit committee roles is providing a mean for review of the companys processes for producing financial data and its internal control, thus its existence is in producing high quality financial reporting. According to Mauritian Code of Corporate Governance (First Edition,Revise April 2004), the board should establish an audit committee with majority of independent directors. The existence of audit committee with a higher proportion of independent directors should reduce the agency cost and improve the internal control that will lead to greater quality of disclosures (Forker, 1992). Managerial ownership The agency theory predicts that the principal-agent problem between managers and shareholders arises when managers hold little equity in the corporation. This will lead to managers to engage in an opportunistic behavior (Jensen and Meckling, 1976). Past studies had showed that an increase in management ownership will reduce the agency problems and improved managers incentive to provide more disclosure. Mohd Nasir and Abdullah (2004) investigated the influence of ownership structure in explaining the level of voluntary disclosures among the financially distressed firms and found that management shareholding levels have a significant and positive association with the level of voluntary disclosures. Coffey and Wang (1998) found that managerial control (percentage of stock owned by insiders) is positively related to charitable giving. The above findings were in contrast to Guan Yeik (2006) and Eng and Mak (2003). In his study, he examined the relationship between managerial ownership and corporate social responsibility and he found that managerial ownership was significantly negatively related to corporate social disclosure. In his study, he found that managerial ownership level of 45 percent above will influence the corporate to have lower social disclosure. Eng and Mak (2003) found that lower managerial ownership is associated with increased voluntary disclosures. Foreign ownership Ramasamy and Ting (2004) examined a comparative analysis of corporate social responsibility awareness by using levels of corporate social disclosure as a measurement of corporate social responsibility (CSR) awareness. In their study, they used employee perception towards CSR awareness. The respondents were questioned on their management of CSR within the company, such as awareness of corporate social responsibility, attitudes to CSR in the company, the types of CSR activity and the respondent involvement in CSR. The results show a low level of awareness in both countries, although companies tend to exhibit a relatively higher level of awareness. Chambers et al. (2003) investigated CSR reporting in seven countries through analysis of websites of the top 50 companies in Asia. This study investigated the penetration of CSR reporting within countries; the extent of CSR reporting within companies and the waves of CSR engaged in. The findings in Chambers et al. (2003) showed that, there are fewer CSR companies in the seven selected Asian countries compared with UK and Japan companies. The mean for the seven countries studied, show a score of 41 percent which is under half the score for the UK (98 percent) and Japan companies (96 percent). Thus by involvement of foreign shareholders in Mauritian Listed companies will enhance the extent of corporate social disclosure in Mauritius. Haniffa and Cooke (2005) found a significant relationship between corporate social disclosure and foreign shareholders indicated that companies use corporate social disclosure as a proactive legitimating strategy to obtain continued inflows of capital and to please ethical investors. Foreign shareholdings in Mauritian listed companies have considerably increased.

Analysis of Wallace Stevens 13 Ways of Looking at a Blackbird :: Wallace Stevens 13 Ways Blackbird Essays

Analysis of Wallace Stevens' "13 Ways of Looking at a Blackbird"   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  'Thirteen ways of looking at a blackbird' by Wallace Stevens is a poem about what it means to really know something. In this poem, Stevens shows this connection by writing a first person poem about a poet's observation and contemplation's when viewing a blackbird. He does this by making each stanza an explanation of a new way he has perceived this blackbird. First, he writes about his physical perception of the blackbird as an observer. Then, he writes about his mental processes during this time. These are as the thoughts and perceptions of the blackbird itself, as what it must be like to be that bird. By the end, he has concluded that by seeing this blackbird, a connection has been made and he now knows the blackbird has becomes a part of him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the first stanza, he focuses on the eye of the blackbird as an outside observer. This symbolizes the thoughts and the consciousness of the blackbird. It is also a transition from the observer's perception to the blackbird's perception. In the second stanza, Stevens goes on to say that he was of ?three minds, Like a tree, In which there are three blackbirds.? This was the first time he makes the connection between seeing the blackbird and him himself metaphorically being the blackbird. He makes this connection even more clear in the fourth stanza when he says that ?A man and a woman Are one. A man and a woman and a blackbird are one." In the sixth stanza he goes back to being the poet observer as he watches the blackbird fly by his icy window. Again in the next stanza he goes back to the point of view of the blackbird wondering why the men of Haddam only imagine golden birds instead of realizing the value of the common blackbird. At this time, he makes the connection that in seeing and knowing the blackbird it becomes a part of himself. When he says in the eighth stanza ?I know noble accents And lucid, inescapable rhythms; But I know, too, That the blackbird is involved In what I know.? he is acknowledging that he is still a poet but when he sees, thinks, and writes about the blackbird, in a way he is also the blackbird. After this, the black bird and the poet observer are separated but in the twelfth stanza Stevens writes ?The river is moving. The blackbird must be flying.? This is meant to show that though the observer's

Essay On The Jacket Article

In my opinion, the jacket Sotto continuously mentions is more than an article of clothing to him; feel it signifies a life of poverty. He hates the green jacket his mother bought him and blames his mother for her bad taste in clothes. He describes the jacket as big and ugly and wishes it belonged to his siblings instead of him. He defines his cool leather dream jacket to his mother but he never gets it Sotto becomes aggravated with his mothers cheap ways; because he knows it will be a long time before he can get a new jacket. As much as he despises the jacket, he thanks his mother and wears it to please err.The first day Sotto wears the jacket to play in his backyard; his dog tears the jacket in the sleeve, he becomes upset with his dog when he tries to do it again. He wears the jacket to school and immediately gets teased by his schoolmates and teachers. Sotto continues to wear the green jacket for 3 years to school and is convinced the jacket is bad luck. For those 3 years he blame d his green jacket for his years of disappointments like his low grades on exams, being bullied by boys, and never having a girlfriend. He blamed his mother for purchasing ugly clothes because they were low-priced.He ends up losing his friends and starts to hanging out with the ugly guys. He is embarrassed and ashamed of his appearance; he allows a piece of clothing to define him. Sotto thinks of getting rid of the jacket many times, but doesn't since he knows he will have no jacket for the cold weather or any money to buy a new one. He outgrows the jacket and has no choice but to wear the worn and torn green jacket because his mother will not buy a new one. I believe Sotto just wanted to fit in and impress his peers at the same time he did not want to seem ungrateful to his mother.

Workplace Ethical Issues

Workplace Ethical Issues Workplace ethics refers to moral principles and values governing proper behavioral conduct in the place of work (Barry Shaw, 2013). Work ethics guide the managers as well as employees to do the right thing even if doing the wrong thing can equally be rewarding and satisfying. Therefore, workplace ethical issues involve a plethora of ethical dilemmas and ethical abuses that come into play in any job.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Workplace Ethical Issues specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More An ethical issue is defined as an illegal, unethical, or irresponsible act made against the employer, and it jeopardizes the employer’s business. Ethical issues arise when workers including the managers and the subordinates are given the responsibility of making decisions about alternative courses of action. This paper discusses a few ethical issues that arise in the workplace. Harassment of the co-workers or clients is one o f the major workplace ethical issues that involve violation of the employers’ workplace ethics policy. Harassment in any workplace may involve unsolicited sexual advances, interferences with work performance through intimidation, or non-compliance with the conditions of work. Sometimes illegal harassment can be based on sex, religion, age, disability, race, or color. Johnson (2007) provides that harassment does not only involve violation of business ethics, but also involves a breach of the federal laws. Sexual harassment is the common ethical issue many workers experience at their workplaces and it is propagated by both the management and regular employees. Basically, sexual harassment of any nature makes the workplace hostile and causes distress among the sexually abused employees. According to Bredeson and Goree (2011), the most common ethical issue within sexual harassment is a dual relationship that involves sexual relationships between employees who share professional r esponsibilities. Furthermore, sexual harassment occurs when employees engage in unethical intimate relationships, which in turn affects their professional decision-making process. Consensual relationships at workplace between a senior employee and a junior employee can become dangerous. This may happen because a senior employee has more authority to affect the working ability of the junior employee if their intimate relationship breaks.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, if this happens, the subordinates should report the act to the relevant authorities because it is improper for any person to use his/her authority to demand favors or create a hostile work environment (Barry Shaw, 2013). Therefore, it is advisable to avoid consensual relationships with co-workers to combat ethical dilemmas and workplace distress. Substance abuse is another ethical issue that crops up at many workplaces. It may involve dependence on stimulating substances such as alcohol and other addictive intoxicating drugs. Addiction to any substance becomes a workplace ethical issue when either a manager or a regular employee’s work performance and productivity are impaired until they use the substance (Johnson, 2007). Alcohol is the most abused substance, and when the employees carry alcohol to workplaces or use in the workplace, it raises serious ethical questions. Generally, substance abuse can be a serious ethical issue if not handled with care since it can create a hostile work environment, and consequently jeopardize the productivity and performance of the entire workforce. In addition, confidentiality is a workplace ethical principle that becomes a familiar ethical issue when it is violated (Johnson, 2007). For instance, the disclosure of an employee’s personal information or the employer’s business strategy to rival organizations is a ma jor violation of the workplace ethics. Actually, protecting the employees from privacy invasion creates trust and perhaps increases their productivity. However, when confidentiality is violated, serious ethical implications may occur, which affect the business negatively. Work ethics require that the clients’ private information or the co-workers personal information be accessed by authorized individuals only. Conflict of interest is another common workplace ethical issue. It refers to a situation whereby an individual’s interests affect or influence his/her workplace judgment, actions, or decisions. Conflicts of interest are virtually unethical and illegal because they negatively affect workplace performance, decision-making process, and relationships with other participants (Bredeson Goree, 2011). Conflict of interest is a serious ethical issue, which should be avoided or resolved immediately it appears because it may result in professional misconduct in the workpla ce. Despite workplace ethical issues being endless, organizations can devise moral or ethical policies to protect their employees from ethical violations.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Workplace Ethical Issues specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, an organization can develop a workplace policy based mission, vision and code of conduct, and ensure that each employee understands the code of ethics. In addition, the organization can provide workplace ethics training for employees, create a legal office to deal with employees ethical issues, and research all federal and employment laws relating to whistle blowing to avoid making decisions that lead to negative ethical implications (Bredeson Goree, 2011). Conclusion In summary, ethical issues exist in almost every workplace because workers often face situations, which involve ethical dilemmas. Moreover, when ethical issues are not resolved in time, they resul t in a hostile work environment making it harder for the employees to give their maximum potential. Thus, it is imperative for employers to respond appropriately to every ethical issue that arises in the workplace to make the workplace safe and friendly. References Barry, V., Shaw, W. (2013). Moral Issues in Business (12th Ed.). Wadsworth: Cenage Learning. Bredeson, D. Goree, K. (2011). Ethics in the workplace (3rd Ed). New York: Cengage Learning. Johnson, C. (2007). Ethics in the workplace: tools and Tactics for organizational Transformation. London: Sage Publications.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Free Essays on West Nile Virus

Just outside New Orleans, in the suburb of Jefferson, Jeanie Knesel is fretting about her grandon’s penchant to attract bugs. [†¦]. It’s the West Nile virus, carried by mosquitoes and blamed for a frightening cluster of recent deaths and illnesses, that has the 51-year-old grandmother concerned about 5-year-old Brandon, who lives with her (Lok 1). Those worries that Jeanie Knesel has are not uncommon among people today. The West Nile virus affects the people that the disease infects as well as the family’s of these people. The West Nile virus is still farley new to the United States so there is still a lot of things people don’t know about this mosquito carrying disease. Without question, the West Nile virus can have a devastating effect on anyone’s life. The West Nile virus is a disease that infects different animals like birds, horses, and dogs. This virus also affects humans by sometimes giving them encephalitis (â€Å"What you should know about West Nile Virus† 1). Mosquito bites is how the West Nile virus is carried. These blood sucking creatures continue to carry the virus and broaden the territory more and more each year (â€Å"West Nile virus† 1). Not all mosquitoes carry the virus. Only the mosquitoes who are infected with the virus can harm animals and people. The only way the mosquito gets the virus is if the mosquito bites a bird who is carrying the West Nile virus (â€Å"West Nile Virus Symptoms, History, and prevention of the West Nile Virus† 1). The West Nile virus can also be spread another way and this is by organ transplants and infected blood transfusions (â€Å"Questions and Answers About West Nile Virus† 1). This way of getting the West Nile virus is very unlikely considering the fact that so many test are done on the blood before being transferred from one person to another. The virus usually stays in humans for a period of five to fifteen days (â€Å"West Nile Virus Symptoms and Care† 3). Egypt, Isra... Free Essays on West Nile Virus Free Essays on West Nile Virus Just outside New Orleans, in the suburb of Jefferson, Jeanie Knesel is fretting about her grandon’s penchant to attract bugs. [†¦]. It’s the West Nile virus, carried by mosquitoes and blamed for a frightening cluster of recent deaths and illnesses, that has the 51-year-old grandmother concerned about 5-year-old Brandon, who lives with her (Lok 1). Those worries that Jeanie Knesel has are not uncommon among people today. The West Nile virus affects the people that the disease infects as well as the family’s of these people. The West Nile virus is still farley new to the United States so there is still a lot of things people don’t know about this mosquito carrying disease. Without question, the West Nile virus can have a devastating effect on anyone’s life. The West Nile virus is a disease that infects different animals like birds, horses, and dogs. This virus also affects humans by sometimes giving them encephalitis (â€Å"What you should know about West Nile Virus† 1). Mosquito bites is how the West Nile virus is carried. These blood sucking creatures continue to carry the virus and broaden the territory more and more each year (â€Å"West Nile virus† 1). Not all mosquitoes carry the virus. Only the mosquitoes who are infected with the virus can harm animals and people. The only way the mosquito gets the virus is if the mosquito bites a bird who is carrying the West Nile virus (â€Å"West Nile Virus Symptoms, History, and prevention of the West Nile Virus† 1). The West Nile virus can also be spread another way and this is by organ transplants and infected blood transfusions (â€Å"Questions and Answers About West Nile Virus† 1). This way of getting the West Nile virus is very unlikely considering the fact that so many test are done on the blood before being transferred from one person to another. The virus usually stays in humans for a period of five to fifteen days (â€Å"West Nile Virus Symptoms and Care† 3). Egypt, Isra...

Lateral Structures in Business Organizations and Which Traits They Research Paper

Lateral Structures in Business Organizations and Which Traits They Encourage - Research Paper Example The main purpose of the research is to present that organizations have increasingly begun to prefer the utilization of lateral relationships as legitimate avenues of information as a new generation of organizational forms has emerged. In this piece, what will be explained are a number of different lateral structural arrangements which are in use in organizations today, including but not limited to the following: role differentiation and role ‘incongruency’; the concept of coherence; and functionality. Role differentiation is important in lateral business structures. According to Tjosvold, â€Å"It is a myth that all team members must be cross-trained†. In contrast, rather, it tends to be the case that—in lateral organizational business structures—the employees find that their own roles are created specifically so that they can work independently. However, this is not at the risk of teams working hierarchically, but side-by-side. The way that role dif ferentiation differs in lateral business organizations versus hierarchical business organizations is that, in lateral ones, roles are distinctly defined. In hierarchical organizations, roles can be blurred, employees multi-task, and departments are formed which work on top of each other—the most powerful being at the top, with the least economically powerful at the bottom although their production is high. Obviously, one of the important issues that lateral business structures bring to the forefront is that there is incongruency in these structures. According to Robinson-Crowley, â€Å"A current trend in management research and practice is to design organizations to be congruent with the demands of the†¦information-processing capacity: investing in information systems and creating boundary-spanning roles† (pp. 84). Of course, this tome about boundary-spanning roles was written 14 years ago. Now, into the second decade of the 21st century in the United States, we a re definitely at the point where different styles of management have come into the fray. Good management will ultimately be able to deal with these hierarchical changes that are different from what we were used to almost a decade-and-a-half ago. According to Poole, â€Å"Top managers are highly visible and provide a vision for the future that employees can share†. Role differentiation and role incongruency are two issues, obviously, that comes from having a laterally-structured business organization. Role differentiation in laterally-organized businesses makes it easier for people to connect and not to feel as much like outsiders. Despite what many might think, role differentiation is well-known across hundreds of nations all over the world. Role differentiation has been around for several centuries and has a very important meaning in the lives of many. It would be safe to assume that role differentiation is going to be around for a long time and have an enormous impact on th e lives of many people. Role differentiation has a large role in American culture. Many people can often be seen taking part in activities associated with role differentiation. This is partly because people of most ages can be involved and families are brought together by this. Generally, a person who displays their dislike for role differentiation may be considered an outcast. This is why role differentiation is somewhat controversial to be considered as part of the lateral structure within a business organization. It is not common practice to associate economical factors with role differentiation. Generally, role differentiation would be thought to have no effect on our economic situation, but there are in fact some effects. Primarily, however, it would be safe to say that role differentiation plays an important role in the American economy and shouldn't be taken for granted. After having completed much research, it has been possible to conclude that

Security through authentication and Encryption Essay

Security through authentication and Encryption - Essay Example Security issues are the ones that Government take pride for determining technical standards within the domain of the private sector. Since technology is on its way to implement some technical standards to secure communication mode, first of all it mandates standards to mandate Internet commerce and communication. Among the most significant issue concerning technical standards is the usage of security and authentication. Authentication is not only required in communications between organizations and clients but is also a considerable issue in making electronic payments over the Internet. Depending on the direction and interactivity, authentication requires some previously stored data while communicating online. Authentication while encrypting the data allows any organization to get security over the network, thereby utilizing its resources without any hassle or threat of being attacked by the hacker. Encryption not only provides confidentiality to an organization when most often used with ‘https’ protocol, but by authenticating the data it provides non-repudiation that travels over a network or stored on a system. Except for the fact that authentication gets costly to organization and there is a risk of passwords vulnerability, there are no other limitations for authenticating your network. Since passwords are vulnerable to brute-force attacks or forgetfulness they are also subjected to a threat of weak password authentication. For example if a manager sends an application inclusive of passwords in plain text while not encrypted, to the authenticating server, any network sniffer can figure out the password, whether it is 250 or 2 characters long. A physical form of authentication is deployed in large organizations, government and military agencies that measures physical attributes, called ‘biometrics’. Since it is economically not